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1) Thurmond W. Arnold, The Symbols of Government (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1935).
2) Sheldon S. Wolin, Politics and Vision (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1960), p. 76.
3) See, for example, Kenneth Clark, The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1956), pp. 227-28.
4) Murray Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1964), p. 19. See, generally, Schauer, An Essay on Constitutional Language, 29 U.C.L.A. L. REV. 797 (1982).
5) West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 662 (1943) (Frankfurter, ]., dissenting). Justice Jackson, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 632 (1943), in the majority opinion, agreed with Frankfurter's analysis of the importance of symbols. See also Justice Cardozo in Louis K. Liggett Co. v. Lee, 288 U.S. 517, 586 (1933) and, generally, Moore, The Semantics of Judging, 54 So. CALIF. L. REV. 167 (1981).
6) "Kennedy Clashes with CORE Chief," New York Times, December 9, 1966, p. 1.
7) T. H. Williams, Richard N. Current, and Frank Freidel, A History of the United States Since 1865 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), p. 197.
8) Ibid., p. 332.
9) Thurmond Arnold, The Folklore of Capitalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937), pp. 207-208.
10) Nan Robertson, "Teacher Opposes the Term 'Negro,'" New York Times, December 10, 1966, p. 27.
11) Dean Rusk, et al., The Vietnam Hearings (New York: Random House, 1966), pp. 137-38. The quotations cited are taken from Mr. Ken-nan's testimony. See also Stone, From a Language Perspective, 90 YALE L.J. 1149 (1981).
12) Edelman, Symbolic Uses, p. 122. See also Ellen Peters, Reality and the Language of Law, 90 YALE L.J. 1193, 1196 (1981); M. H. Hoeflich, "The Speculator in the Governmental Theory of the Early Church," Vigiliae Christianae 34 (1980)-.120,125,127; Deutsch and Hoeflich, Legal Duty and Judicial Style: The Meaning of Precedent, 25 ST. LOUIS U.L.J. 87 (1981).
13) See, for example, Stanley L. Payne, The Art of Asking Questions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951).
14) Bertram D. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution (New York: Stein and Day, 1964), pp. 243-44.
15) See, for example, William J. Small, Political Power and the Press (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1972), p. 204.
16) Time, November 6, 1972, p. 36.
17) Army Digest, April 1968.
18) Cited in Harry Hoijer, "Cultural Implications of Some Navajo Linguistics Categories," in Language in Culture and Society, ed. Dell Hymes (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1964), p. 142.
19) Ibid.
20) See Martin Diamond, "The Federalists' View of Federalism," in George C. S. Benson, et al., Essays in Federalism (Claremont, Ca.: Institute for Studies in Federalism, 1961), pp. 27-42.
21) Robert G. McCloskey, American Conservatism in the Age of Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951), pp. 168-73.
22) Giovanni Sartori, Democratic Theory (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1965), p. 353.
23) Louis Hartz documents the complete lack of appeal of socialism and communism in the United States in his book, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1955).
24) See, for example, O. G. Villard, "What Is a Liberal?" Nation, November 27, 1937; M. Thorpe, "Who, Then Is the Liberal? Justice Reynolds and His Decisions," Saturday Evening Post, March 12, 1938; E. F. Goldman and M. Paull, "Liberals on Liberalism: Nine Definitions of Liberalism," New Republic, July 22, 1946; "What Is a Liberal?" Time, February 21,1949; D. Bendiner, "What Is a Liberal?" Nation, March 26,1949; R. M. Christenson, "What Is a Liberal?" New Republic, July 19, 1948. See also Lou Harris, "5% More Call Selves More Liberal," Washington Post, November 27,1972.
25) By 1978, 42 percent of the respondents in a poll called themselves moderately conservative or very conservative. In 1964 only 30 percent of the poll respondents put themselves in that category. Adam Clymer, "More Conservatives Share 'Liberal' View," New York Times, January 22, 1978.
26) Adam B. Ulam, The Unfinished Revolution (New York: Random House, i960), p. 90.
27) For example, see Herbert Hoover, The Challenge to Liberty (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934), pp. 3-10; and Robert A. Taft, "What Is a Liberal," Commercial and Financial Chronicle, May 16,1946, pp. 2641, 2668, 2670.
28) Charles Frankel, "A Liberal Is a Liberal Is a—," New York Times, February 28, 1960, sect. 6, p. 21.
29) Quoted in Emmet John Hughes, The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years (New York: Atheneum, 1963), p. 271.
30) Frankel, "A Liberal."
31) See "Politics and the Name Game," Time, November 2,1970.
32) Alan P. Grimes, "Contemporary American Liberalism," Annuals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences (November 1962): 33.
33) Erwin L. Linn, "The Influence of Liberalism and Conservatism on Voting Behavior," Public Opinion Quarterly 13 (Summer 1949): 299, 300, 307, 309.
34) Grimes, "Contemporary American Liberalism," p. 33.
35) It's Later Than You Think: The Need for a Militant Democracy (New York: Viking Press, 1939), p. 3.
36) "The Pragmatic Course of Liberalism," Western Political Quarterly 9 (September 1956): 633.
37) See L. T. Hobhouse, Liberalism (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1911).
38) Thomas P. Neill, The Rise and Decline of Liberalism (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1953), pp. 279-80.
39) Ibid., p. 283.
40) Guido de Ruggiero, The History of European Liberalism, trans. R. G. Collingwood (Boston: Beacon Press, 1959), p. 156.
41) Neill, Rise and Decline, pp. 278-79.
42) Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life, ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. (1909; reprinted ed., Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1965), p. v.
43) "Liberalism and the National Idea," in Left, Right, and Center: Essays on Liberalism and Conservatism in the United States, ed. Robert A. Goldwin (Chicago: University of Chicago, Public Affairs Conference Center, 1965), p. 143.
44) Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, ed. Samuel I. Rosenman (New York: Random House [vols. 1-5], Macmillan Co. [vols. 6-9], Harper & Brothers [vols. 10-12], 1938-50).
45) Beer, "Liberalism," p. 144.
46) An article count in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature shows that in the ten-year period 1890-99 (when 56 periodicals were indexed) there was only one article indexed under "Liberalism." In the early years of the New Deal, from July 1932 to June 1935, the Readers' Guide indexed 114 periodicals and reports. Though the number of indexed materials merely doubled—reflecting in part a more intelligent, more articulate, and more politically aware public—the number of articles listed under "Liberalism" increased by forty times. This figure is made more impressive if we remember that this second time period is less than one-third as long as the first time period.
47) Another index reflecting popular usage and mass vocabulary is the New York Times Index. The preface to each volume of the index assures us that the headings reflect the popular concerns of that year. A heading may appear with many articles listed under it one year, and the heading itself may have disappeared the next year. The results of a search through the New York Times Index, from 1913 through 1965, demonstrates that it is not until 1922 that the subject heading "Liberalism" is even listed in the index. By far the greatest number of articles concerned with liberalism as a symbol appear in the decade of the 1930s. This article search shows only the number of times articles referring to liberalism were written. What it does not show, and what we will see later, is not only that there were more articles in the New Deal period than any previous time period, but also that many of these articles were much longer and more thorough than previously; full-length magazine articles suddenly appear in the popular literature of the 1930s discussing "liberal" as a political symbol.
48) Personal communication, October 26, 1966.
49) Raymond Moley, with the assistance of Elliot A. Rosen, The First New Deal (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1966), p. 3270.
50) Personal communication, December 7, 1966.
51) Personal communication, November 22, 1966.
52) R. G. Tugwell, "The New Deal: The Progressive Tradition," Western Political Quarterly 3 (September 1950): 420.
53) John T. Flynn, "What Liberalism Means to Me," American Mercury 67 (August 1948): 175.
54) New York Times, February 23, 1936, sect. 7, p. 3.
55)Giovanni Sartori, Democratic Theory (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1965), p. 357.
56)See Thomas P. Neill, The Rise and Decline of Liberalism (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1953), p. 7, and Neill, "Liberalism ... A Term of Many Meanings Whose Sense Must Be Defined When Used," Social Order 3-4 (October 1954)1341.
57)Neill, "Liberalism," p. 341.
58)Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 7.
59)Neill, "Liberalism," p. 341.
60)Sartori, Democratic Theory, pp. 357-58.
61)Neill, "Liberalism," p. 341.
62)Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 94.
63)Ibid., pp. 94-95.
64)J. M. Robertson, The Meaning of Liberalism (London: Kennikat Press, 1925), p. 15.
65)Sir James A. H. Murray, ed., A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, vol. 6 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908), p. 238.
66)Sir William A. Craigie and James R. Hulbert, eds., A Dictionary of American English: On Historical Principles, vol. 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942), p. 1417.
67)See Michael Grant, Roman History from Coins (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1958), for a discussion of Roman use of Liberalitas on coins; cf. A. R. Hands, M Charities and Social Aid in Greece and Rome (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1968).
68)Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 3.
69)Hamilton Fyfe, The British Liberal Party (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1928), p. 14.
70)Murray, vol. 6, p. 238.
71)The new label "conservative" was also successful because of its appeal to those fearful of the violent changes occurring in France. Robertson, The Meaning of Liberalism, p. 14.
72)Sir James A. H. Murray, ed., A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1893), p. 855.
73)Guido De Ruggiero, The History of European Liberalism, trans. R. G. Collingwood (Boston: Beacon Press, 1959), pp. 128-29.
74)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, pp. 93 and 128.
75)Murray, vol. 6, p. 238.
76)In 1847 Cockburn wrote: "I have scarcely been able to detect any Candidate's address which, if professing Conservatism, does not explain that this means 'Liberal Conservatism.'" Cited in Murray, vol. 6, p. 238.
77)In this section I am indebted to the argument developed in Ruggiero, European Liberalism, pp. 94-123.
78)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, p. 99.
79)Ibid., p. 102.
80)Ibid., p. 106.
81)John D. Rosenberg, The Darkening Glass: A Portrait of Ruskin's Genius (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), p. 131.
82)John Ruskin, Unto This Last (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1875), p. 126.
83)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, p. 109.
84)Ibid., p. 110.
85)Ibid., pp. 111-12.
86)Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, vol. 3 (New York: Viking Press, 1949), pp. 142,146.
87)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, p. 116.
88)John Dewey, "A Liberal Speaks Out for Liberalism," New York Times, February 23, 1936, sect. 7, p. 3.
89)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, pp. 133-35. Cf. Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905).
90)Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 228.
91)Max Lerner, It's Later Than You Think: The Need for a Militant Democracy (New York: Viking Press, 1939), p. 9.
92)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, p. 140.
93)Neill, Rise and Decline, pp. 234-35.
94)Neill, "Liberalism," p. 342.
95)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, p. 142.
96)Ibid.
97)Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 245.
98)John S. Mill, "A Crisis in My Mental History: One Stage Onward," in Victorian Prose, ed. Frederick Roe (New York: Ronald Press, 1947), pp. 218-35. See, generally, Maurice Cowling, Mill and Liberalism (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1963).
99)Quoted in Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 228. This statement does not appear in the original 1848 edition of Mill's Principles of Political Economy, but it does appear in all editions subsequent to 1852.
100)Quoted in Neill, Rise and Decline, pp. 10-11.
101)De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, p. 149.
102)Neill, "Liberalism," pp. 342-43.
103)Thomas D. Ungs, "Liberal-Conservative: The Sense and Nonsense of Political Labels," University of Wichita Bulletin (February 1964): 10.
104)Samuel H. Beer, "Liberalism and the National Idea," Left, Right, and Center: Essays on Liberalism and Conservatism in the United States, ed. Robert A. Goldwin (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1965), p. 147.
105)Quoted in Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 284.
106)Quoted in De Ruggiero, European Liberalism, p. 151.
107)Quoted in Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 291.
108)Fyfe, British Liberal Party.
109)John Maynard Keynes, Essays in Persuasion (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1932), pp. 323-24.
110)Ibid., p. 325.
111)Ibid., p. 335.
112)Ibid., pp. 335, 327, 345.
113) Giovanni Sartori, Democratic Theory (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1965), p. 358.
114) Quoted in Samuel H. Beer, "Liberalism and the National Idea," Left, Right, and Center: Essays on Liberalism and Conservatism in the United States, ed. Robert A. Goldwin (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1965), p. 144. See also Ronald D. Rotunda, John E. Nowak, and J. Nelson Young, Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure, vol. 3 (St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1985), sects. 23.19-23.23.
115) Ibid.
116) Earle Dudley Ross, The Liberal Republican Movement (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1919), p. 28.
117) See, generally, Norma Peterson, Freedom and Franchise: The Political Career of B. Gratz Brown (Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1965), pp. 174-90.
118) Ross, Liberal Republican Movement, p. 28.
119) Thomas S. Barclay, The Liberal Republican Movement in Missouri: 1865-1871 (Columbia, Mo.: State Historical Society of Missouri, 1926), pp. 272-73.
120) Ross, Liberal Republican Movement, pp. 30-31.
121) Ibid., p. 25.
122) Ibid., pp. 24-25.
123) Dumas Malone, ed., Dictionary of American Biography, vol. 16 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1935), p. 466; Ross, Liberal Republican Movement, p. 5.
124) Ross, Liberal Republican Movement, p. 14.
125) Ibid., pp. 30-31.
126) New York Times, October 31,1872, p. 6; November 1,1872, p. 4; November 2, 1872, p. 6; November 4,1872, p. 4; November 5,1872, p. 4.
127) Peterson, Freedom and Franchise, p. 198.
128) Richard Allen Gerber, "The Liberal Republican Alliance of 1872" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1967), p. 7.
129) New York Times, November 4,1872, p. 4.
130) Ross, Liberal Republican Movement, p. 16.
131) T. H. Williams, Richard N. Current, and Frank Freidel, A History of the United States Since 1865 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), p. 105.
132) Ibid., pp. 105-106.
133) Ibid., p. 106.
134) Allen Johnson and Dumas Malone, eds., Dictionary of American Biography, vol. 3 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1931), p. 533.
135) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 106. For an example of the political abuse leveled at Horace Greeley see Everett Chamberlin, The Struggle of '72 (Chicago: Union Publishing Company, 1872), chap. 25.
136) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 107.
137) Charles Forcey, The Crossroads of Liberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), p. viii; Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954), pp. 18-20.
138) Quoted in ibid., p. 153.
139) Henry F. Pringle, Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1931), p. 575.
140) Forcey, Crossroads, pp. 152-55.
141) Charles Forcey, "Intellectuals In Crisis: Croly, Weyl, Lippmann, and the 'New Republic': 1900-1919" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1954), p. 510.
142) Link, Woodrow Wilson, p. 237. See also Mark DeWolfe Howe, ed., The Holmes-Laski Letters, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953), pp. 16 and 33.
143) Forcey, "Intellectuals," p. 522.
144) Ibid., p. 523.
145) Ibid., p. 515.
146) Ibid., pp. 523-28. See also Link, Woodrow Wilson, pp. 240-41.
147) Forcey, "Intellectuals," pp. 527-28, n16.
148) Forcey, Crossroads, p. 255.
149) Towne v. Eisner, 245 U.S. 418, 425 (1918) (Holmes, J.).
150) Alan P. Grimes, "The Pragmatic Course of Liberalism," Western Political Quarterly 9 (September 1956):637.
151) Beer, "Liberalism," p. 147.
152) June 6, 1921, p. 7.
153) September 7, 1922, p. 19; November 6, 1922, p. 2.
154) November 6, 1922, p. 2.
155) June 23, 1923, p. 11.
156) December 8,1924, p. 17.
157) New York Times, February 17, 1927, p. 20.
158) New York Times, August 18, 1919, p. 7.
159) See, generally. Belle Case LaFollette and Fola LaFollette, Robert M. LaFollette (New York: Macmillan Co., 1953), pp. 996-1014.
160) New York Times, July 17, 1920, p. 2.
161) New York Times, July 20, 1920, p. 1.
162) New York Times, July 17, 1920, p. 2.
163) Fred Greenbaum, Robert Marion LaFollette (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1975), pp. 211-19.
164) New York Times, February 5, 1920, p. 7.
165) Samuel H. Church, The Liberal Party in America: Its Principles and Its Platform (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1931), pp. 4-5.
166) New York Times, February 10, 1930, p. 11.
167) February 10, 1930, p. 11.
168) Thomas P. Neill, "Liberalism ... A Term of Many Meanings Whose Sense Must be Defined When Used," Social Order (October 1954): 344.
169) New York Times, September 22, 1919, p. 7.
170) New York Times, September 14, 1919, sect. 3, p. 1; August 30, 1922, sect. 2, p. 4.
171) New York Times, February 10, 1930, p. 11.
172) New York Times, February 5, 1940, p. 17; April 23, 1930, p. 1.
173) Church, Liberal Party, p. 3.
174) Ibid., p. 21.
175) R. G. Tugwell, "The New Deal: The Progressive Tradition," Western Political Quarterly 3 (September 1950) 400; see also James A. Wechs-ler, The Age of Suspicion (New York: Random House, 1953), p. 45.
176) New York Times, November 10, 1923, p. 5. See also Nicholas Murray Butler, The Faith of a Liberal (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1924), pp. 6, 14; quoted from an address delivered before the Round Table Club, St. Louis, November 9, 1923.
177) New York Times, November 10, 1923, p. 5. See also Butler, Faith of a Liberal, pp. 11-14.
178) New York Times, September 18, 1925, p. 6.
179) New York Times, September 21, 1923, p. 4.
180) Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, vol. 1 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1957), pp. 40-41.
181) New York Times, September 18, 1925, p. 6.
182) Ibid.
183) New York Times, July 24, 1926, p. 1.
184) New York Times, November 23, 1929, p. 23.
185) April 28, 1922, p. 16.
186) August 8, 1923, sect. 2, p. 6.
187) November 25, 1931, p. 20.
188) September 28, 1924, sect. 2, p. 4.
189) February 6, 1930, p. 22.
190) Quoted in Beer, "Liberalism," p. 148, rvj. See also B. F. Wright, Jr., A Sourcebook of American Political Theory (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929), p. 639.
191) "Text of President Hoover's Address: Kings Mountain Battlefield, S.C.," New York Times, October 8, 1930, p. 18.
192) "Hoover in Warning on Red Doctrines," New York Times, October 8,1930, pp. 1, 18.
193) Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1954), p. 57; T. H. Williams, Richard Current, and Frank Freidel, A History of the United States Since 186s (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), p. 322.
194) Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, vol. 1 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1957), pp. 80, 81; David Burner, Herbert Hoover: A Public Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979), pp. 153-54.
195) Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 57. See also Edgar Robinson and Vaughn Bornet, Herbert Hoover, President of the United States (Stanford, Ca.: Hoover Institution Press, 1975), p. 12.
196) Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 1, pp. 84-87; Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, pp. 408-409.
197) Finis Farr, F.D.R. (New Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1972), pp. 167-68.
198) Quoted in Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 408.
199) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 377; Warren Sloat, 1929: America Before the Crash (New York: Macmillan Co., 1979), pp. 220-21.
200) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 430; Burner, Herbert Hoover, p. 174.
201) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 440; Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, pp. 417-18.
202) Rexford G. Tugwell, "The Protagonists: Roosevelt and Hoover," Antioch Review 13 (December 1953): 419.
203) Quoted in Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 1, p. 290. See also Arthur A. Eirch, Jr., Ideologies and Utopias: The Impact of the New Deal on American Thought (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969), pp. 81-82.
204) Frank Freidel and Norman Pollack, eds., Builders of American Institutions (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963), pp. 457-58.
205) Elliot A. Rosen, Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Brain Trust (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), pp. 297-301.
206) Tugwell, "The Protagonists," p. 442.
207) R. G. Tugwell, "The New Deal: The Progressive Tradition," Western Political Quarterly 3 (September i95o):396-97.
208) See Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Har-court, Brace & World, Inc., 1955). Hartz uses the term "liberal" in a very specific manner: the philosophy of John Locke. Compare with Jay Sigler, The Conservative Tradition in American Thought (New York: Putnam, 1969).
209) Hartz, The Liberal Tradition, p. 262.
210) Tugwell, "The New Deal," p. 400; Thurmond W. Arnold, The Symbols of Government (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1935), pp. 238-89. See also Ronald D. Rotunda, John E. Nowak, and J. Nelson Young, Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure, vol. 2 (St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1985), sect. 15.3.
211) Arnold, Symbols, pp. 252-53, 232.
212) Edgar E. Robinson, They Voted for Roosevelt (Stanford, Ca.: Stanford University Press, 1947), p. 4.
213) Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952), pp. 41-42.
214) Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, vol. 7, ed. Samuel Rosenman (New York: Macmillan Co., 1941), p. xxxi.
215) Samuel H. Beer, "Liberalism and the National Idea," Left, Right, and Center: Essays on Liberalism and Conservatism in the United States, ed. Robert A. Goldwin (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1965), p. 146.
216) William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1940 (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1963), p. 8; Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 1, pp. 523-25, n130.
217) Personal communication, November 22, 1966.
218) Tugwell, "The New Deal," pp. 391-92.
219) Personal communication, November 22, 1966.
220) Personal communication, October 26, 1966.
221) Quoted in Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, pp. 54, 282, n6.
222) See Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 1, pp. 277, 520-21, n5.
223) Personal communication, October 26, 1966.
224) Daniel Fusfeld, The Economic Thought of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Origins of the New Deal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954), pp. 226-27.
225) Quoted in Greer, What Roosevelt Thought, p. 211.
226) Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 35.
227) Hartz, The Liberal Tradition, p. 262.
228) Greer, What Roosevelt Thought, p. 54.
229) Tugwell, "The New Deal," pp. 400-401.
230) Quoted in Beer, "Liberalism," p. 147. See also Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 1, p. 313.
231) Personal communication, October 26, 1966.
232) Quoted in Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 45.
233) "The Excitement of the Hundred Days," in The New Deal and the American People, ed. Frank Freidel (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), p. 5.
234) Ibid., p. 8.
235) Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1958), p. 22.
236) Quoted in New York Times, July 16, 1933, sect. 4, p. 4.
237) New York Times, December 7, 1933, p. 22.
238) Texaco Star, March-April, 1933, p. 4.
239) See Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 2, p. 471.
240) Ibid., p. 486; V. O. Key, Jr., Politics, Parties, and Pressure Groups (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1964), p. 189; Denis W. Bro-gan, The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), pp. 197-98.
241) Burner, Herbert Hoover, pp. 329-30.
242) Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 2, pp. 487-88.
243) Ibid., p. 472.
244) Herbert Hoover, The Challenge to Liberty (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934), pp. 4, 7-8, 60-61.
245) New York Times, October 18, 1934, p. 22.
246) Ibid., October 22, 1934, p. 14.
247) Ibid., October 25, 1934, p. 22.
248) Ibid., December 29, 1934, p. 6.
249) Beer, "Liberalism," p. 148.
250) P. W. Wilson, "Liberalism Faces a World Challenge," New York Times Magazine, March 11, 1934, pp. 10, 20.
251) New York Times, October 1, 1934, p. 3.
252) Schlesinger, Age of Roosevelt, vol. 2, p. 489.
253) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 500. One of the Senate seats was filled by Harry S. Truman.
254) Tugwell, "The New Deal," p. 390.
255) Williams, Current, and Fseidel, A History, pp. 500, 502.
256) Raymond Moley, with the assistance of Elliot A. Rosen, The First New Deal (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1966), p. 526.
257) Tugwell, "The New Deal," pp. 399-400.
258) New York Times, January 6, 1935, sect. 4, p. 1.
259) Ibid.
260) Key, Politics, p. 189; Robinson, They Voted for Roosevelt, p. 33.
261) Brogan, Era, p. 199. See also Robinson, They Voted for Roosevelt, p. 33.
262) New York Times, April 19, 1936, p. 28.
263) Ibid., March 8, 1936, pp. 1, 36.
264) See Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt, p. 110.
265) John Dewey, "A Liberal Speaks Out for Liberalism," New York Times Magazine, February 3, 1936, pp. 3, 24.
266) New York Times, October 18, 1936, sect. 4, p. 8.
267) Ibid., March 2, 1936, p. 16.
268) Ibid., June 8, 1936, p. 14.
269) Key, Politics, pp. 189-90.
270) Moley, The First New Deal, p. 527. Arthur Krock writes that he agrees with Moley's explanation; personal communication, December 7, 1966.
271) Frank Latham, FDR and the Supreme Court Fight, 1937: A President Tries to Reorganize the Federal Judiciary (New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1972), p. 4; Robert G. McCloskey, The American Supreme Court (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, i960), p. 169.
272) Alpheus T. Mason and William M. Beaney, American Constitutional Law (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), p. 221. See, generally, John E. Nowak, Ronald D. Rotunda, and J. Nelson Young, Constitutional Law (St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1978), pp. 38-39, 146-50.
273) Mason and Beaney, American Constitutional Law, p. 222. See also Ronald D. Rotunda, Modern Constitutional Law (St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1981), pp. 206-207.
274) Justice Roberts, in particular, appeared to leave the conservative bloc and join the liberal bloc. It was said that he was "the switch in time that saved nine." In fact Roberts privately announced his vote in one case—West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937). upholding a state minimum wage law in a 5 to 4 vote—before the Court-packing plan was unveiled, but after the November election returns. See Rotunda, Modern Constitutional Law, p. 207.
275) Mason and Beaney, American Constitutional Law, p. 223.
276) New York Times, June 10, 1937, p. 18.
277) Ibid., October 23, 1937, p. 16.
278) Ibid., October 26, 1937, p. 22; October 27, 1937, p. 30; October 31, 1937, sect. 4, p. 9.
279) Ibid., October 26, 1937, p. 22; October 27, 1937, p. 30.
280) Greer, What Roosevelt Thought, p. 119; Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 266.
281) Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 267; New York Times, June 25, 1938, pp. 1, 3.
282) New York Times, September 3, 1938, p. 1.
283) Quoted in New York Times, June 26, 1938, p. 2. See also Ellis W. Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), p. 424.
284) Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 259.
285) Ibid., p. 269.
286) Franklin D. Roosevelt, Public Papers, vol. 7, pp. Xxxi-xxxii.
287) Greer, What Roosevelt Thought, pp. 119-120; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., History of U.S. Political Parties, 4V0IS. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1973), 3:1950. Representative John O'Connor, House Rules Committee chairman, was defeated but "mostly for local reasons."
288) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, pp. 513, 515-16, 520.
289) Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt, p. 269, n50.
290) Ibid., p. 268.
291) New York Times, November 7, 1938, p. 9; New York Times, September 4, 1938, p. 3.
292) Ibid., September 25, 1938, p. 3; July 11, 1938, p. 4; September 25, 1938, sect. 4, p. 9; July 3, 1938, sect. 4, p. 9.
293) Des Moines Register editorial, quoted in New York Times, June 26, 1938, p. 2; New York Times, July 1, 1938, p. 9; September 28, 1938, p. 6.
294) For example, during 1938 and 1939, definitions of "conservative" began to appear in the New York Times: July 11, 1938, p. 4; September 6, 1938, p. 1, 3, and editorial p. 20; September 8, 1938, p. 22; September 25, 1938, p. 3; July 6, 1939, p. 2; July 9, 1952, p. 5; July 14, 1939, p. 18; July 16, 1939, sect. 4, p. 9; July 23, 1939, sect. 4, p. 9.
295) Williams, Current, and Freidel, A History, p. 520.
296) New York Times, August 12, 1939, p. 1; Williams, Current, and' Freidel, A History, p. 541.
297) New York Times, July 9, 1939, p. 5.
298) For example, see Thomas H. Greer, What Roosevelt Thought (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press, 1958), pp. 123-24; Ernest K. Lindley, The Roosevelt Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1933), pp. 10-11.
299) Greer, What Roosevelt Thought, p. 120.
300) Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952), p. 464. Much of the remainder of this section is based on Rosenman, chap. 24, pp. 463-70. See also James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1970), pp. 511-12.
301) I am indebted to Professor Frank Freidel, who holds this opinion and who first suggested to me this argument.
302) Frank Freidel, America in the Twentieth Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, i960), p. 448.
303) Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt, p. 466.
304) F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928-45, vol. 2, ed. Elliott Roosevelt (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1950), p. 1520. Roosevelt had assured Willkie that the meeting would be off the record.
305) Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt, p. 466.
306) Ibid.
307) The July 13 letter was published almost verbatim in the New York Times of August 12, 1944.
308) Denis W. Brogan, The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), pp. 352-53.
309) Freidel, America, p. 449.
310) Brogan, Era of Roosevelt, p. 353.
311) Information about this poll is taken from Thomas P. Neill, The Rise and Decline of Liberalism (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1953), pp. 3-4, and Robert Bendiner, "Politics and People," Nation 168 (March 26, 1949): 349-50.
312) Clinton Rossiter, Conservatism in America (New York: 1962), p. 195; James W. Prothro, "Verbal Shifts in the American Presidency: A Content Analysis," American Political Science Review 50 (September 1956): 727.
313) New York Times, June 28, 1963, p. 33.
314) David McCord Wright, "When You Call Me Conservative, Smile," Fortune 43:2 (May 1951): 76-77, 192.
315) Robert A. Taft, "What Is a Liberal?" Commercial and Financial Chronicle 163:2 (May 16, 1946): 2668.
316) Louis Bromfield, "The Triumph of the Egghead," Freeman 3 (December 1, 1952): 157.
317) Leon Shull, executive director, ADA, quoted in New York Times, June 15,1980, p. 14.
318) New York Times, June 30, 1980, p. 19.
319) Ibid., October 6, 1981, p. 26.
320) Ibid., January 22, 1978, p. 1.
321) Ibid., p. 30.
322) Ibid.
323) Ibid.
324) Ibid., September 20, 1980, p. 19.
325) Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., "Is Liberalism Dead?" New York Times, March 30, 1980, pp. 42, 73.
326) Wall Street Journal, March 6, 1985, p. 60; New York Times, October 6, 1981, p. 26; Wall Street Journal, March 8, 1985, p. 48.
327) Wall Street Journal, March 6, 1985, p. 60.
328) Thurmond Arnold, The Symbols of Government (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1935), pp. 258-59.
329) Ibid.
330) Quoted in C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1923), p. xxiv. See James Boyd White, When Words Lose Their Meaning: Constitutions and Reconstitutions of Language, Character, and Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), pp. 275-76.
331) Neill, Rise and Decline, p. 6. See also A. James Gregor, An Introduction to Metapolitics (New York: Free Press, 1971), p. 77: "Language is at once a commonplace and a great puzzlement. It is the principal vehicle of communication . . . and yet it is a treacherous source of confusion."